SS+Dumping+AFF

=For up-to- date team by team 1acs go here= =**1ac Draft as of Monday, July 23**=


 * Contention 1: Inherency**


 * The** **US** **is the biggest producer of electronic waste – 50 millions computers a year**
 * __[|IPS News],__** Mar. 15, **__2007__** (Seeking An International Solution to Mountains of E-Waste, [|http://www.greenbiz.com/news/news_third.cfm?NewsID=34728&CFID=4126229&CFTOKEN=20139087)] [O’Brien]

The 1992 Basel Convention was specifically set up to prevent transfer of hazardous waste, including e-waste, from developed to less developed countries. "Rich countries skirt the rules, mislabel waste as material for reuse or simply don't check waste shipments for compliance," Alhajj said in an interview from Amsterdam, Holland. __The__ __United States__ __is the biggest producer of e-waste -- discarding close to 50 million computers a year -- and is also the largest shipper by far of e-waste to developing countries, she said. The U.S. has refused to sign the Basel Convention__. "It's good that StEP brings stakeholders together to talk about the problem, but the situation is so dire that binding laws and enforcement on the ground is needed," Alhajj said. The Seattle-based toxic trade watchdog Basel Action Network also criticised StEP for not denouncing the global dumping of electronic waste on developing countries


 * And, 80% of** **U.S.****’ e-waste is exported – numbers are increasing**


 * __The Seattle Times__**, __**2006**__ (“E-Waste Dump of the World”, [|http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002920133_ewaste09.html)] [Ha]

__"Up to 80 percent of all obsolete electronics that get collected ends up getting exported," said__ __Ted__ Smith, the founder of the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition and a director of the national Computer Take Back Campaign, which advocates safe domestic recycling of discarded electronics and directs consumers to recyclers that pledge to use environmental best practices and not to export e-waste. __The flow of__ __U.S.__ __e-waste abroad "is not diminishing," he said. "If anything, it is increasing."__

Jerome **__Douglas__**, November 29, **__2006__** (E-waste from advanced nations creating toxic dumping grounds in Asia, Africa, [|http://www.newstarget.com/021197.html)] [O’Brien] __In recent times__, __much of this electronic waste has found its way to Asian countries__ such as China and India. __However__, __tighter regulations mean more waste is ending up in [|Africa]__, __with__ a reported minimum __of 100,000 computers a month entering the Nigerian__ __port__ __of__ __Lagos__ __alone.__ Steiner went on to say, "If these were good quality, second hand, pieces of equipment this would perhaps be a positive trade of importance for development … but local experts estimate that between a quarter to 75 percent of these items, including old TVs, CPUs and phones are defunct -- in other words, e-waste."
 * And, recent regulations means we dump this waste in** **Africa**

[|Charles W. **Schmidt**], winner of the 2002 National association of science writers scientist in society journalism award April **__2006__** (Unfair trade e-waste in Africa, [|Environmental Health Perspectives], [|**http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CYP/is_4_114/ai_n17156125/pg_2**]) [O’Brien]
 * And, this dumping is inevitable – companies will ignore an all out ban**

__The question of who's selling e-waste to__ __Africa__ __is harder to answer. Used electronics travel murky routes populated by numerous recyclers and brokers working in an unregulated market, devoid of government certification programs__. Electronics recyclers are at the top of the supply chain. __These companies incur tremendous overhead expenses--to recycle a single monitor in the__ __United States____, for instance, can cost up to $15. Many recyclers run legitimate operations that absorb these costs and profit from refurbished equipment sales and fees charged for accepting old, unsalable material. But others are not so scrupulous. According to one anonymous recycler, it's not uncommon for companies to coordinate with exporters to ship junk overseas. In some cases, exporters negotiate with buyers in developing countries, who dictate the amount of junk they will accept in exchange for a specified number of high-value items.__ "I could come up with half a load of good stuff and say, 'If you want it, you have to take the bad,' and sell it all by the pound," the recycler says. "Then the guy in Africa will crunch the numbers and say, 'OK, if you put a few more Pentium IIIs in there, you've got a deal.'"


 * Thus we present the following plan:**


 * The** **United States** **federal government should offer to buy electronic waste dumped in Sub Saharan at the market value of this waste, for the purpose of assisting in the clean up and recycling the purchased waste. Funding and enforcement will be provided.**


 * Contention two: The Environment:**


 * First, Trace metals left by e-waste** contaminate sediment contaminating water.
 * Coby S.C. __Wong__,** Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong**__, et al__**, January **__2007__** (Trace metal contamination of sediments in an e-waste processing village in China, [|Environmental Pollution] [|Volume 145, Issue 2], pg 434-442, __[|http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VB5-4KBVWYV-4&_user=4257664&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2007&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000022698&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4257664&md5=bea9de3495dc8b62f881fdccabed4f7e#sec5)__] [O’Brien]__

This paper offers some scientific evidence of environmental degradation caused by primitive e-waste processing activities in developing countries__. In this study, the__ analytical results showed __that Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn contamination of sediments in Guiyu was serious.__ Trace metal contamination of the sediments __in Guiyu__ could have significant impacts on the health of the residents and environmental quality of the local and downstream terrestrial and aquatic environment__, and further investigations are needed. More importantly,__ a proactive material management strategy should be taken to minimize e-waste production and make their components more desirable for recycling and reuse.

__**And, E-water contaminates groundwater – guaranteeing spread of the contamination**__
 * IRIN**__, Octboer__ **2005** __(NIGERIA: World's broken electronics pile up in Lagos, creating toxic dumps, [|**//http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=56876//**]) [O’Brien]

LAGOS, 27 October 2005 (IRIN) - Nigeria is becoming a digital dump, the recipient of vast numbers of broken gadgets from the West that can leak dangerous substances into water supplies and create cancer-causing particles when burnt, a toxic waste watchdog said on Thursday. Basel Action Network, a US-based lobby group that recently conducted an investigation in Africa's most populous country, found that around 500 giant containers, packed with old computers, televisions and mobile phones, were arriving every month at the main city and port, Lagos.__ These electronics are supposed to be for repair and re-use, but BAN estimates that 75 percent of the items are neither repairable nor of any economic value. __So they often end up being dumped at official landfill sites or offloaded illegally by the side of the road or in swamps where they are either burnt or simply left. BAN says__ chemicals like lead can leak into the groundwater. And materials used in circuit boards, although safe when the computer is on a desk, can produce carcinogenic particles once set alight. "Residents breathing in the fumes from the fires or drawing water from contaminated areas are going to be taking in some seriously dangerous substances__," Jim Puckett, the BAN official who led the investigation, told IRIN by phone from the group's headquarters in Seattle. “__Re-use is a good thing, bridging the digital divide is a good thing, but exporting loads of techno-trash in the name of these lofty ideals and seriously damaging the environment and health of poor communities in developing countries is criminal__,” he said.__

__Erik R.__ **Peterson.** __Senior vice president at CSIS and Director. 9/30/__**05****. __“__**__Addressing Our Global Water Future” //Center for Strategic and International Studies, Sandia National Laboratories.// Pg. 4 http://water.csis.org/050928_ogwf.pdf__
 * And, clean water key to the environment and biodiversity**

Ecosystem degradation caused by __water withdrawals, loss of wetlands, and__ water pollution will __also__ hinder economic development by affecting ecosystem services__. Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that comprise them, sustain and fulfill human life. These services include purification and delivery of fresh water, decomposition of wastes, generation of soils, pollination of crops, production of wood and fiber, and many more (Daily 1997). The ecosystem services provided to humans by freshwater systems, including aquifers, wetlands, lakes, streams, and rivers, fall generally into three categories: a) the supply of water for drinking, irrigation and industry; b) the supply of other valuable and diverse goods, such as fish, waterfowl, grazing mammals and other animals that live near freshwater sources; and c) and non-extractive, or “in stream”, benefits including transportation, flood control, waste disposal, property values near scenic lakes or rivers, urban parks, and recreation ostel and Carpenter 1997). (P__ Ecosystem services have very large impacts on human economic systems. __A pioneering study found that__ global freshwater resources provided ecosystem services to humans at a 1994 value of atleast $6.6 trillion. The study found that the entire value of global ecosystem services for that year was $33 trillion. __At that time the global gross national product was about $18 trillion—meaning that__ ecosystems services in general, and those associated with water in particular, heavily subsidized the human economy __(Costanza et al. 1997).__ One more benefit of functioning ecosystems is biodiversity__, or the abundance and variety of species at all scales. Biodiversity, in turn, is considered to be important for maintaining the function and stability of ecosystems, and the delivery of ecosystem services (Tilman 1997). The World Wildlife Fund’s Freshwater Species Population Index (FSPI), which measures the average change over time in the populations of 194 species of freshwater birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fish, fell by over 50 percent from 1970 to 1999. Globally, 20 percent of freshwater fish species are already threatened or extinct, and freshwater species make up 47 percent of all animals federally endangered in the United States (Jackson et al. 2001)__

Charles W. **Schmidt**, Science writer and toxicologist with expertise in pharmacology, public health, genomics, information technology, and environmental science and policy, **2002** (“E-Junk Explosion”, Environmental Health Perspective, Vol 110, Num 4, April) [Ha]
 * Second, E-Waste is highly hazardous causing pollution**

According to the SVTC, a lack of data complicates our understanding of the potential health effects from exposure to e-wastes. Ultimately, e-waste poses the most direct health risks when it degrades and the internal chemicals are released to the environment. Lead and mercury are highly potent neurotoxins, particularly among children, who can suffer IQ deficits and developmental abnormalities at very low levels of exposure. Cadmium, a toxic metal found in circuit boards, is listed by the EPA as a "probable human carcinogen," and also produces pulmonary damage when burned and inhaled. Hexavalent chromium, also used in circuit boards, has been found to produce lung and sinus tumors when inhaled at high doses. In addition to metals in electronics, many environmentalists worry that the BFRs in plastic pose health risks. BFRs are among a group of bad actors known as persistent organic pollutants--specifically, chemicals with a high affinity for fats that travel the world and accumulate in human, animal, and fish tissues. Animal experiments have shown that a number of these chemicals affect thyroid function, have estrogenic effects, and act through the same receptor-mediated pathways as does dioxin, which is among the most potent animal carcinogens known. Further, environmentalists charge, electronics recyclers have not really come to grips with the special environmental problems that they say are inherent in the prolific use of BFRs in e-waste plastics. "There have been almost no studies on the ultimate fate of BFRs when they are melted or burned in recycling or incineration applications," says Jim Puckett, coordinator for the Seattle, Washington-based Basel Action Network (BAN) that serves as a watchdog on issues of "toxic trade."

__Michael__ **Jacobs**__, consultant on local economic development and environmental policy @ Southampton Univeristy,__ **’91** __(“The Green Economy”, p. 9)
 * And, pollution destroys the environment**

The biosphere is maintained through the complex interaction of living organisms. As habitats are destroyed, ecosystems are upset, with sometimes unpredictable and wide-ranging effects.__ Pollution __in particular__ is __frequently__ self-reinforcing__, since__ it reduces biological diversity and therefore makes it harder for the ecosystem to withstand future pollution. The reduction or elimination of one species may affect many others dependent on it. Food chains may be disrupted, the balance of species altered so that pests become dominant, and ultimately evolutionary processes themselves may be threatened__.__ The complete collapse of ecosystems is possible__: this occurred, for example, in Lake Erie in the 1970s, when pollution killed off almost all life. More critically,__ the famines which have claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of people in Africa are the result __– in part –__ of almost complete environmental bankruptcy.

Gary **Strieker**, Cable News Network, Http://www.cnn.com/, 2/21/**2000**
 * Loss of African environments causes planetary extinction**

There have been rhetorical advances as of late in African rainforest conservation. It remains to be seen whether talking the talk leads to walking the walks. Planetary survival depends upon making it so. Commercial logging consumes nearly 40,000 square kilometers of African forest each year, an area the size of Switzerland. Much of it falls to chainsaws in the vast central African rainforest. Second in size only to the Amazon, is Africa's wild plants and animals. Many endangered species face certain extinction if destruction on this scale continues.

__**And, the protection of the all biodiversity is key to prevent extinction.**__
 * Diner**__, **19**__**94** __(David, Ph.D., Planetary Science and Geology, "The Army and the Endangered Species Act: Who's Endangering Whom?", Military Law Review, 143 Mil. L. Rev. 161, LexisNexis Academic Universe,)__

To accept that the snail darter, harelip sucker, or Dismal Swamp southeastern shrew 74 could save [hu]mankind may be difficult for some. __Many, if not most,__ species __are useless to [hu]man[s] in a direct utilitarian sense. Nonetheless, they__ may be critical in an indirect role, because their extirpations could affect a directly useful species negatively. In a closely interconnected ecosystem, the loss of a species affects other species dependent on it__. 75 Moreover__, as the number of species decline, the effect of each new extinction on the remaining species increases dramatically__. 4. Biological Diversity. --__ The main premise of species preservation is that diversity is better than simplicity. __77 As__ the current mass extinction has progressed, the world's biological diversity generally has decreased. __This trend occurs within ecosystems by reducing the number of species, and within species by reducing the number of individuals. Both__ trends carry serious future implications__. 78 [*173]__ Biologically diverse ecosystems __are characterized by a large number of specialist species, filling narrow ecological niches. These ecosystems__ inherently are more stable than less diverse systems__. "The more complex the ecosystem, the more successfully it can resist a stress. . . . [l]ike a net, in which each knot is connected to others by several strands, such a fabric can resist collapse better than a simple, unbranched circle of threads -- which if cut anywhere breaks down as a whole." 79__ By causing widespread extinctions, humans have artificially simplified many ecosystems. As biologic simplicity increases, so does the risk of ecosystem failure. The spreading Sahara Desert in Africa, and the dustbowl conditions of the 1930s in the United States are relatively mild examples of what might be expected if this trend continues__. Theoretically,__ each new animal or plant extinction, with all its dimly perceived and intertwined affects, could cause total ecosystem collapse and human extinction. Each new extinction increases the risk of disaster__. Like a mechanic removing, one by one, the rivets from an aircraft's wings, 80 [hu]mankind may be edging closer to the abyss.

John__ **Cairns**__, Jr., department of biology, Virginia Polytechnic institute,__ **1998** __(“Goals and Conditions for a Sustainable World” [|http://www.int-res.com/esepbooks/CairnsEsepBook.pdf)] [O’Brien]__
 * And, a sustainable environment is key – plan is necessary to prevent escalation of toxins - the alternative is human extinction.**

Sustainable use of the planet will require that __the two components of human society’s life support system –__ technological and ecological – be in balance __(Cairns, 1996). Holmberg et al. (1996) state the situation superbly: "A long-term sustainable society must have stable physical relations with the ecosphere. This implies sustainable materials exchange between the society and the ecosphere as well as limitations on society’s manipulation of nature." At present, persuasive signs indicate that the__ technological system is damaging the integrity of the ecological life support system __(Cairns, 1997). By monitoring the condition or health of both systems, a benign coevolution of human society and natural systems would be possible (Cairns, 1994; 1995). However,__ sustainable use of the planet will require environmental management on unprecedented temporal and spatial scales__. The attainment of sustainability faces considerable obstacles. A societal distrust of scientific evidence has arisen that ranges from a belief that science does not differ from other ways of knowing to a total misunderstanding of how science works. Also, one common belief is that quality of life is more closely associated with consumption or affluence than with environmental quality, and, consequently, that a maintenance of affluence is to be preferred over the maintenance of natural systems. This false choice arises from human society’s failure to recognize its dependence on natural systems for essential ecological services, such as maintenance of breathable air, drinkable water, the capture of energy from sunlight, and the provision of arable soils (e.g., Daily, 1997). Possibly, the same human ingenuity that people have relied on to solve local resource limitations could also be used to develop an environmental ethos that will enable humans to conserve the ecological capital (old growth forests, species diversity, topsoil, fossil water, and the like) upon which they now depend. Humankind has survived thus far by meeting short-term emergencies as they occurred. However, humans supposedly can be distinguished from other species by their awareness of the transience of individual lives and their own mortality. Extending this awareness to the possibility of human extinction might be enlightening. Wilson (1993) asks "__Is humanity suicidal?": The human species is, in a word, an environmental hazard. It is possible that intelligence in the wrong kind of species was foreordained to be a fatal combination for the biosphere__. Perhaps a law of evolution is that intelligence usually extinguishes itself.__ If human society destroys, by its own actions, the living components of Earth that maintain an environmental state favorable to human survival, human society hastens its own extinction. Protection of these ecological services extends the time that the human species can survive on Earth. By regulating the use of ecosystem services to a rate that does not destroy the ability of natural systems to produce them, more humans will live better lives over time. Towards this end, a number of steps can be undertaken.


 * E-Waste 1AC**

__**And, this environmental destruction via waste dumping warrant particular attention – the colonialist assumption the** **Africa** **is a dumping ground justifies any atrocity in the name of money – this is a racist and colonialist assumption that must be rejected.** Alex__ **Means**__, writer for Politics and Culture, edited by: Amitava Kumar, Professor of English at Vassar College, and Michael Ryan, teaches American Literature and Culture, American Film, and Literary Theory at Northeastern, 20__**07** __(“Toxic Sovereignty: Biopolitics and Cote d'Ivoire”, Issue 2, [|http://aspen.conncoll.edu/politicsandculture/arts.cfm?id=67)] [Ha]__

These deathscapes are resultant from the emergence of nation states stripped of all social and legal structures where the sovereign power of the state is predicated on its application of violence within a state of exception__. Mbembe claims that this sovereign power exists within a matrix of crisscrossing layers of capital flows that have made looting and terror the rule and has pushed populations into despairing positions, which Mbembe equates to living dead, or zombification (Mbembe).__ The toxic dumping in Cote d'Ivoire illustrates the level of insecurity facing African citizens where death is literally leaking into the very soil under their feet. In Mbembe’s analysis, a constant state of exception and the residual psychic and social scars of colonialism prevent life from ever really existing in places like Cote d'Ivoire. In the postcolony, life is bound with the perpetual the presence of death __(Ibid).__ In the wake of the waste dumping, there was a widespread recognition among Ivorians and the international community that profit had been placed before the lives of Ivorian citizens. Although the discourses of biopower __that Hardt and Negri and Achille Mbembe describe__ are illustrative of a stark reality, and the situation in Cote d'Ivoire is dire, possibilities for agency and collective action still exist. __As Jean Comoroff insightfully argues, although the “capricious power of structural violence are all too evidently capable of severing life from its civic endowment and social value, no act of sovereignty can perpetrate on human beings a total alienation from meaning and will” (Comoroff, p. 19). Despite having a government that has violently suppressed civil protest in the past,__ Ivorian citizens did not stand mute in the wake of the disaster. In the days following the catastrophe, thousands of Abidjan's residents took to the streets to protest. With wet rags tied around their faces to protect themselves from the stench, they expressed their outrage and frustration by setting up roadblocks, marching, and holding rallies. They carried placards in the streets reading: “they sold our health”, “they are killing us for money”, “it is a crime against humanity”, and “they sold away the lives of the people of this country, for crumbs” __(BBC,Sept 7). These actions were directed toward the Ivorian leadership for their complicity in corporate greed and exploitation as well their indifference to the lives of their citizenry.__ Outrage has also been directed at the inability of the international community to enforce established rules governing the illegal trade in toxic waste which is slowly creating more deathscapes like the one in Cote d'Ivoire. Such acts of resistance, while offering hope that agency and collective action still exist even in the most difficult of circumstances, may not be enough to stem the tide of waste flowing into the developing world from the west. __According to Jim Puckett of the Basel Action Network, who has monitored hazardous waste trade for 17 years, there is more evidence of illegal toxic waste dumping today than at any time in the past. (BAN, Sept 8) He claims that, “ironically today we have the international rules to control or prohibit such global dumping but we are lacking in the diligent enforcement and implementation of these hard won laws” and “unfortunately if it’s easy to poison the poor for profit, unscrupulous operators and businesses will do it” (Ibid). ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓__


 * E-Waste 1AC**

__↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓__ The Cote d'Ivoire toxic waste scandal sheds light on a reality where the poison of the west is being dumped indiscriminately on the global poor. __The incident in Cote d'Ivoire does not exist in isolation as developing nations are increasingly being used as a dump sites for western refuse.__ Many of these nations do not have the regulations, resources, or facilities to properly dispose of these waste products thus exposing their water, food, air, and citizens to an uncertain future. As demonstrated by the conditions in Cote d'Ivoire, this kind of activity has a profound impact not only on the environment and human health but on political stability as well. The United States alone is thought to be responsible for exporting many hundreds of thousands of tons of hazardous waste to the developing world every year despite international rules which forbid such trafficking __(Kahn).__ All down the West African coast, ships registered in America __and Europe__ unload containers filled with old computers, slops, and used medical equipment. __Scrap merchants, corrupt politi-cians and underpaid civil servants take charge of this rubbish and, for a few dollars, will dump them off coastlines and on landfill sites (AP, Oct 17).__ These activities are sowing death into the environmental and social fabric of these states. As the developing world scrambles to overcome an increasing digital divide, one of the biggest problems is the 20-50 million tons of “e-waste” that is being created and exported every year from the west. __These old computers, cell phones, and television sets contain lead, mercury, cadmium, and other toxic compounds.__ Much of this waste is being burned, sending clouds of toxic smoke into the air, or it is being left to rot in large open dumps, leaking poisonous metals into the ground and water supply. __The Basal Action Network, a global watchdog organization which monitors the trade in toxic waste, has recently turned its attention toward what they see as a coming “tsunami of electronic waste” ready to hit the African shore with the cross-over to Microsoft Vista. This toxic storm stands in contrast to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation's charitable commitment "to bring innovations in health and learning to the global community." (BAN, Jan 30) Jim Puckett of BAN states today with the release of Vista, Microsoft could bring both a massive digital dump and a perpetuation of the digital divide to the global community. It is shameful how little innovation and concern the electronics industry continues to demonstrate for the long-term consequences of their products in light of their abilities to innovate front-end gadgetry to encourage sales. A truly responsible industry will take steps to ensure that innovation does not automatically equate to obsolescence, toxic waste and a growing population of hardware have-nots. (Ibid)__ Africa has long existed as a sphere from which the west could extrapolate wealth and resources. Now it appears that it increasingly exists to absorb the garbage when those resources have fulfilled their productive purpose. Despite the environmental and human consequences, the short term economic benefit of off-loading waste in places devoid of regulations and infrastructure to safely dispose of it, continues to win out for western companies.

__**Contention three: Solvency**


 * First, US organizations are able to transport and e-cycle waste – this detects toxic waste effectively and contains it.**__
 * U.S. Department of Commerce, Technology Administration**__, July__ **2006** __(RECYCLING TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS: AN OVERVIEW OF E-WASTE POLICY ISSUES, [|**http://www.technology.gov/reports/2006/Recycling/Beg-Apendix7.pdf**]) [O’Brien]__//

__Hazardous Waste__ //The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act __(RCRA), pronounced "rick-rah", enacted by Congress in 1976, g__ave EPA the authority to control hazardous waste from the "cradle-to grave." This includes the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. RCRA also set forth a framework for the management of municipal solid waste__s. The Federal Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) are the 1984 amendments to RCRA that required, among other things, limitations on the land disposal of hazardous waste. Some of the other mandates of this strict law include increased enforcement authority for EPA, more stringent hazardous waste management standards, and a corrective action program for facilities that treat, store, or dispose of hazardous waste. Under regulations promulgated by EPA,__ a waste is considered hazardous if it is ignitable __(i.e., burns readily),__ corrosive, or reactive __(e.g., explosive).__ Waste may also be considered hazardous if it contains certain amounts of toxic chemicals. Toxicity is determined through the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure __(TCLP).__ The TCLP test determines which materials are likely to leach containments in an acidic environment modeled after municipal solid waste landfills and thus would leach into surrounding water that would be harmful to human health or the environment__. In addition to these characteristic wastes, EPA has also developed a list of over 500 specific hazardous wastes.__ Hazardous waste takes many physical forms and may be solid, semi-solid, liquid, or even contained gases. EPA regulations also contain exclusions for certain wastes from the definition of solid waste or hazardous waste. __In addition, EPA has developed streamlined rules for particular wastes, including recyclable wastes and universal wastes such as batteries, pesticides, mercury-containing equipment, and lamps that are widely generated by different industries.__ The RCRA hazardous waste program regulates commercial businesses as well as Federal, state and local government facilities that generate, transport, treat, store, or dispose of hazardous waste. Each of these entities is regulated to ensure proper management of hazardous waste from the moment it is generated until its ultimate disposal or destruction. RCRA does not regulate residential waste, even when it contains hazardous materials. __EPA has also exempted businesses that produce less then 220 pounds of hazardous waste a month under the Conditionally Exempt Small Quantity Generators (CESQG) rule, provided certain limited conditions are met. Handlers of hazardous waste must meet certain regulatory requirements. Generators and transporters must have government issued identification numbers, and comply with other regulations regarding the handling of hazardous waste.__ Treatment, storage, and disposal facilities must meet even more stringent requirements, and must have a permit to operate. The RCRA municipal solid waste program also regulates owners and operators of municipal solid waste landfills. The regulations stipulate minimum criteria that each landfill must meet in order to continue operating.

__**And, E-cycling contains a three step process that uniquely eliminates toxins -solves environmental issues** Jia__ **Li**__, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,__ **et al.** __February 7,__ **2007** __(Recycle Technology for Recovering Resources and Products from Waste Printed Circuit Boards, [|http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/sample.cgi/esthag/2007/41/i06/html/es0618245.html)] [O’Brien]__

In this study, a new process technology without negative impact to the environment for recycling waste __PCBs from computers and factory scraps was investigated.__ The process technology contained mechanical two-step crushing, corona electrostatic separating, and recovery__, as shown in Figure 1. The objective of the research was to try to establish a recycle technology to settle the problem of waste PCBs. Materials and Methods In 2004 and 2005, a total of 400 kg of waste PCBs was collected from individual collectors, local electronic repair facilities, local household waste collection facilities, and a local PCBs factory. The waste PCBs were separated into two types. Type A (nearly 250 kg) was mainly disassembled from discarded telephones, printers, PCs, and other electrical equipment (with some electronic elements), and type B (nearly 150 kg) was from scraps from a local PCBs factory (without electronic elements), as presented in Figure 2. Type A samples have various metals, and the attachment regimes of materials are complex, such as fastening, inserting, welding, binding, wrapping, coating, etc. [|(//16//)]. However, there was only copper coating on the epoxy base plates in the type B sample. The largest size of materials was 250 mm × 200 mm × 20 mm, and the smallest size was 80 mm × 35 mm × 10 mm. The toxic components (relays, switches, capacitors, etc.) were disassembled before crushing. Two-Step Crushing.__ The purpose of the crushing was to strip metal from the base plates of waste PCBs. According to the different functions, the crusher machinery mainly contained a crusher __(jaw crusher, hammer grinder, cone crusher, impact crusher, and roll crusher__) and a pulverizing mill __(globe mill, autogenous tumbling mill, and vibratom). The industrial application type of the crusher machinery depends on the hardness, strength, and caking property of processed materials, the composition of particle size, and the maximum particle size. The materials are comprised of reinforced resin and metal parts such as copper wires and joints. They have a high hardness and tenacity, so using general crushing machines could not provide good metal stripping. In addition, most of base plates contain a fiber structure (glass cloths) that is easier to break under shearing action.__ Because the content of fine particles in discharge is very low, a normal crusher that depends on extrusion forces to crush does not have a good effect of thorough metal stripping __[|(//17//)].__ Then, the hammer grinder whose main acting force is a shear force is suitable for crushing waste PCBs__. According to further analysis of the fragility of materials: (i) the materials with large two-dimensional sizes cannot be crushed by a hammer grinder directly and (ii) the particle size of discharge would be from 0.3 to 3 mm [|(//18//, //19//)]. The single crusher cannot satisfy the conditions. So, we use two-step crushing in this capacity, as shown in Figure 2. A high-speed shearing machine was used as the crude crusher. The shearing action generated by the rotor cutters and stator cutters crushed PCB plates to small particles. A hammer grinder specially designed for PCBs was employed as the second crusher. The materials were stroked and milled by high speed hammerheads. The action of hammerheads not only promoted metals to be completely strapped from base plates but also decreased the opportunity of wires wrapping around the tool tips. The diameter of screen holes in the hammer grinder was 1 mm to warrant an excellent grade of metal stripping from the base plates. The materials coming out of the hammer grinder were screened by an electric shaker. In various sieve layers, the delaminated material mix was separated according to size: 1# (0.8 to ~1.2 mm), 2# (0.6 to ~0.8 mm), 3# (0.45 to ~0.6 mm), 4# (0.3 to ~0.45 mm), and 5# (<0.3 mm). All the samples were heated at 100 C in a drying stove for 3 h to reduce their moisture content to__// __W //0%. The average particle diameter (//D//) of crushed materials was computed where// d//1,// d//2,// d//3, and// dn //were the average particle diameters of every grade and// G//1,// G//2,// G//3, and// Gn //were the mass contents of every grade. After two-step crushing, the average particle diameters of materials were 0.4106 mm (type A) and 0.4007 mm (type B). It was clear that they were close to each other. The mass contents of type A and type B were 16.61 and 7.75% in 3#-grade; type A's 2# and 4# were higher than type B's 2# and 4#, as presented in Figure 3. This suggests that the size distributions of two kinds of materials were very different. The metal stripping degree of type A was nearly 100% under the size of -1.2 mm; however, the stripping degree of type B was only 50% under the size of -1.2 mm + 0.8 mm. Under the size of -0.6 mm, the stripping degree of type B was 100%. The different results between two types can be attributed to the fact that some of the electronic devices such as resistors and chips had a high hardness in type A material and that these components formed bulbous or horny hard particles during crushing and caused a great effect in metal stripping. So, type B should be pulverized finer than type A to strip metals from the base plate completely during industry applications.//__ //The experiments have shown that two-step crushing was an effective process to strip metals from base plates completely__. Corona Electrostatic Separating.__ Corona electrostatic separation is an important technique suitable for separating metals and nonmetals. Compared with other methods, the corona separation had no wastewater or gas during the process, and it had high productivity with a low-energy cost __(Table 1). The high-voltage electrostatic field was generated by a corona electrode and electrostatic electrode, as shown in Figure 4. Metal and nonmetal particles entering this field were mainly subjected to electrostatic induction and ion bombardment (corona charge), respectively. The metal particles discharged rapidly to the earthed electrode and detached from the rotating roll until the mechanical and electrical forces exerting on it satisfied the condition (Figure 5a).


 * And, US key - current** **US** **efforts undermine the Basal Convention – plan key to reverse – otherwise more e-waste dumping is inevitable.**__
 * BAN News, 2006** __(Draft Ship breaking Treaty Seen as Failure Norway and Germany’s ethics sacrificed for powerful shipping lobby, [|http://216.239.51.104/search?q=cache:gLcJMWqWoSoJ:ww.ban.org/cop8/COP8NewsLetter.pdf+Japan+and+e-waste+and+fail&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=14&gl=us&client=firefox-a)] [O’Brien]

Finally__, it must be said that certain powerful developed countries, most notably __Japan,__ the United States, __and recently in the case of ships, Norway and Germany,__ are engaged in new concerted campaigns to circumvent or undermine the Basel Convention’s and the Basel Ban’s obligations__. (See articles on IMO, MPPI and Japan in this issue). It__ is no surprise therefore that an entirely new generation of hazardous wastes – post-consumer electronic and ship waste have been flooding developing countries in Asia and Africa even before the Abidjan horror was revealed and continue to this day

__**And,** **US** **leadership on environment key to long term solvency and effective policies.** Paul E.__ **Hagen**__, chair of the International Practice Group at Beveridge & Diamond, P.C., in Washington__ **and** __Michael P.__ **Walls**__, managing director for Health, Products and Science Policy at the American Chemistry Council in Arlington, Virginia,__ **2005** __(The Stockholm Convention On Persistent Organic Pollutants, Number 4 • Volume 19 • Spring 2005 • American Bar Association • Natural Resources & Environment, [|http://www.bdlaw.com/assets/attachments/67.pdf)] [O’Brien]__

United States participation is also critical to ensure __that the Convention can deliver tangible__ environmental benefits over time__. Recent history has shown that__ where the United States actively participates in global environmental accords __(e.g., the Montreal Protocol),__ U.S. leadership, technical expertise, and resources can help ensure that global environmental risks are identified and mitigated__. Conversely,__ the absence of U.S. participation in such accords increases the likelihood that such agreements will drift politically or suffer from uneven or ineffective implementation__.

Edward J.__ **Daniels**__, Principal Investigator and Field Project Manager__ **and** __Joseph A.__ **Carpenter**__, Technology Area Development Manager,__ **2005** __(Recycling Assessments and Planning**,** FY 2005 Progress Report, [|http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/alm_05/7a_daniels.pdf)] [O’Brien]__
 * And, US key – they have benchmark recycling technology**

CRADA __Projects__ A collaborative research and development agreemen__t (CRADA) among Argonne, the Vehicle Recycling Partnership (VRP)__ of U.S. __Council for Automotive Research (USCAR), and the American Plastics Council (APC) has been structured to provide a core team of expertise and the resources to enable the optimum recycling of all automotive materials. The CRADA team’s R&D agenda__ focuses on __the following key objectives: Develop and demonstrate sustainable technologies and processes for ELV recycling. Demonstrate the feasibility of resource recovery from shredder residue, including materials recovery for reuse in automotive and other applications, chemical conversion of residue to fuels and chemicals, and energy recovery. Develop viable strategies for the control and minimization or the elimination of substances of concern__. Benchmark recycling technology and __provide data to stakeholders.__ Stimulate markets for reprocessed materials to support economic collection, processing, and transportation__. Transfer technology to commercial practice


 * This effective technology is key to effective recycling of e-waste.**__
 * Frost & Sullivan**//__, a global growth consulting company, has been supporting clients' expansion for more than four decades. Our market expertise covers a broad spectrum of industries, while our portfolio of advisory competencies includes custom strategic consulting, market intelligence, and management training,// Jun 12,__ **2006 __(__**__Recycling technology advances and new material development key to successful e-waste recovery, EMSNow Media, [|**http://www.emsnow.com/npps/story.cfm?id=19792**]) [O’Brien]

"__Improving technology for plastics recycling is bound to reduce the burden on oil-derived virgin plastics and provide sustainable development for the electronics manufacturing industry__," says Ramamoorthy. Indeed__, the increasing emphasis on e-waste recovery is forcing electronics equipment manufacturers to take greater responsibility for designing products that facilitate effective recycling. Given that they cater to global clients and have to comply with various directives in different countries, it is imperative for these manufacturers to develop successful product take-back programs as well as establish recycling operations or outsource them to major recyclers__. Essentially,__ manufacturers need to ensure the usage of appropriate technologies that can recycle large quantities of e-waste in a cost-effective manner. __Since electronics recycling calls for the synchronized operation of different processes to achieve valuable material streams, the focus will increasingly shift to emerging technologies that are suitable for these processes.

S. Jacob__ **Scherr**__, Director, NRDC International Program, 5.18.__**05** __(Global Superpower: The United States Must Lead the Fight to Protect Our Planet, [|http://www.nrdc.org/international/osuperpower.asp)] [O’Brien]
 * And, as the biggest polluters the** **US** **has an obligation to environmental reform.**

What makes this situation particularly hard to fathom is that no single nation has more to lose by refusing to confront our current environmental problems -- or more to contribute toward solving them -- than the United States. As shareholders in the world's largest economy,__ Americans __have grown more accustomed to material comfort than any other people. Yet__ with resources such as oil, land and fresh water in finite supply __-- and with consumer demand in China and other nations rapidly increasing -- we simply cannot sustain our current rate of consumption. At the same time,__ we are the world's biggest polluter. With less than 5 percent of the world's population__, the United States contributes 25 percent of the world's total carbon dioxide emissions -- more than China, Japan and India combined -- and consumes 26 percent of the world's oil, 25 percent of the coal and 27 percent of natural gas.__ America's status as both the wealthiest and most polluting country on earth means that we must be a central player in any effort to protect the global environment__. Yet despite our unparalleled influence -- and the growing pressures on our planet's natural systems__ -- the United States has increasingly failed to take a leadership role on environmental protection.

__**And, the** **US** **is key - it has a responsibility to e-cycle its e-waste**__
 * Science News**__, July 11,__ **2007** __(E-waste recycling spews dioxins into the air, [|**http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2007/july/science/rc_ewaste.html**]) [O’Brien]

"As long as there is unemployment and labor is cheap, this kind of work will be done in less-than-adequate conditions," says Ogunseitan. And countries like__ the U.S. that export their e-waste to developing countries must also bear the responsibility__, he says.__ "I've always advocated that the U.S. must now take very seriously the [|Basel Convention] that prohibits the shipment of hazardous wastes to other countries. We are, in principle, a country that will do this kind of thing on purpose__. But by our inaction on international laws that protect vulnerable populations all over the world, we are essentially saying that it's OK." Although [|individual states] have laws that seek to prevent shipping e-waste to developing countries, the [|Basel Network] calculates that [|50–80%] of U.S. e-waste is sent to China."